BHARATIYA SHASTRIYA SANGIT 

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Glossary

Names of notes and tals are capitalised

alpatv अल्पत्व weakness or sparsity of a note

akar अाकार vocalization using the long vowel ‘a’

alap अालाप the introductory non-metrical part of a performance in which the rag is slowly & systematically unfolded

andolan /andol अांदोलन / अांदोल a slow & delicate oscillation on a single note

antara अंतरा  second section of a composition which generally moves around the high Sa and beyond  

aroh अारोह ascent

ati komal अति कोमल very flat

auchar अौचार a brief non-metrical melodic introduction preceding the section in meter

avroh अवरोह descent

bada khayal बडा ख्य़ाल ‘big’ khayal; a khayal composition rendered in slow tempo

badhat बढत elaboration of the rag, often rendered on the framework of a composition

bahutv बहुत्व strength or profusion of a note

bandish बंदिश a fixed composition, usually with two parts corresponding to sthayi & antara

bin बीन a fretted stick-zither with two gourd resonators, also referred to as rudra vina

bol बोल ‘word’; lyrics of a song; also a mnemonic by which drum strokes and right-hand strokes of plucked instruments are communicated

bol alap बोल – अालाप alap movements using the words of the song

bol tan बोल – तान a fast melodic passage which is articulated with the words of the song

chalan चलन ‘movement’; a melodic outline of a rag usually containing a number of characteristic ascending and descending movements

chiz चीज a vocal composition, usually with two parts corresponding to the sthayi and antara

chhota khayal ख्य़ाल ‘small’ khayal; a composition in medium to fast tempo

Chautal चौताल name of a tal of 12 counts (2+2+2+2+2+2+2) which is mainly used in dhrupadcompositions

Dadra दादरा name of a tal of 6 counts (3+3), a light classical vocal genre and type of song set todadra tal

darbar दरबार the royal court

Dhaivat (Dha) धैवत the name of the sixth scale degree

dhamar धमार name of a tal of 14 counts (5+2+3+4); a vocal  genre and type of song which is set to dhamar tal and related to dhrupad

dhrupad ध्रुपद the oldest surviving vocal genre in Hindustani music and a type of composition which usually has four parts corresponding to four musical sections

Dipchandi दिपचंदी name of a tal of 14 counts (3+4+3+4); mainly used in thumri

drut  द्रुत fast

Ektal  एकताल name of a tal of 12 counts (2+2+2+2+2+2)

gamak गमक any ornament; more specifically referring to a heavy shake on a single tone

Gandhar (Ga) गंधार the name of the third scale degree

gharana घराना the tradition and lineage of a musical family, a stylistic school

ghazal गझल a Persian or Urdu poetic genre, in music it is a type of song which expresses both spiritual & worldly love

Hindustani हिन्दुस्तानी Pertaining to northern India

hori होरी a vocal genre in dhamar tal, the lyrics expresses the love-pranks of Radha & Krishna during the Hindu spring-time festival of colour known as holi

jati जाती class, species, genus, an category of modes

Jhaptal झपताल name of a tal of 10 counts (2+3+2+3)

jod जोड ‘joining’; usually the second section of an instrumental alap or dhrupad alap in which a clear rhythmic pulse is introduced

Keharva कहरवा name of a tal of 8 counts (4+4)

kan कन a single grace note or inflection before or after an articulated tone

katthak कथ्थक ‘story teller’; a caste of professional musicians and dancers in eastern Uttar Pradesh; also the main form of North Indian classical dance

khali खाली the ‘empty’ unstressed beat of a tal which usually serves as a counter balance to the first beat, sam

khayal or khyal खयाल / ख्य़ाल the prevalent vocal genre in Hindustani classical music

komal कोमल ‘soft’; flat, a note lowered by a semitone

lay लय tempo

layakari लयकारी ‘playing with rhythm’; rhythmic variation and improvisation

madhy मध्य़ ‘medium, middle’

Madhyam (Ma)  मध्यम the name of the fourth scale degree

mandr मंद्र ‘low’; usually referring to the lower register

matra मात्रा that which measures, the basic time or counting unit of a  tal

mel मेल a scale type used as a basis for  rag classification, the fret setting (on a vina)

mind मींड a gradual slide (portamento) from one note to another

mukhda मुखडा ‘face’; the cadence that punctuates each section of an alap; the phrase of a composition that leads to the first beat of the rhythm cycle, sam

murki मुरकी a fast and delicate ornament involving two or more tones, similar to a mordent, used in khayal, thumri and allied forms

Nishad (Ni) निषाद the name of the seventh scale degree

nom-tom नोम तोम alap using abstract syllables, sung before presenting a dhrupad or dhamarcomposition

Pancham (Pa) पंचम the name of the fifth scale degree

rag राग a tonal framework for composition and improvisation; melodic type

ras रस a pervading emotional flavour or aesthetic sentiment

Rishabh (Re) रिषभ the name of the second scale degree

Rupak रूपक name of a tal of 7 counts (3+2+2)

sam सम the first beat of a tal which is usually accentuated

sangit संगीत music

sargam सरगम the seven sol-fa syllables used in oral and written notation; a composition or tanwhich uses the names of the notes

Shadj (Sa) षड्ज the name of the first degree

shruti श्रुती microtone, the key-note

shuddh शुध्द ‘pure’, a natural note

sthayi स्थायी ‘standing, constant’; the first section of a composition which is frequently repeated

sunth सूंथ a long glide with a nasal pronunciation using the sound ‘u’

svar स्वर tone; one of the seven scale degrees

tabla तबला the main percussion instrument in Hindustani music, consisting of a pair of tuneable hand-played drums

tal ताल ‘time measurement’; the rhythmic /metric system; a metric type

tan तान a fast melodic passage

tanpura तानपूरा a fretted long lute which provides the drone

tappa टप्पा a type of song and vocal genre featuring rapid and complex tan-s with abrupt jumps

tar तार ‘high’, usually referring to upper register

tarana तराना a vocal composition related to khayal, using linguistically meaningless syllables as lyrics

that थाट a scale type used as a basis for rag classification, the fret setting (on a sitar)

theka ठेका the basic pattern of drum strokes which characterises a tal

thumri ठुमरी a popular semi-classical genre

tihai तिहाई a rhythmic or melodic cadence in which a phrase is repeated three times before ending on the sam

Tintal  तिनताल name of a tal of 16 counts (4+4+4+4)

tivr तीव्र sharp, a note augmented by a semitone

upaj  उपज improvisation

vina वीणा a string instrument

vistar विस्तार refer to badhat

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Tonal system

Svar
A svar is a scale degree in a context, and is the basic unit of melodic structure in Indian music. There are seven svar-s, which are known as Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni. Together they are referred to as SARGAM. 

Each symbol used to represent these notes is an abbreviated form of the real note names in Sanskrit, which are Shadj, Rishabh, Gandhar, Madhyam, Pancham, Dhaivat and Nishad. 

In notation, the names could be further abbreviated to S R G m P D N.

Hindustani Music is invariably performed with a drone instrument, usually the tanpura. The two middle strings are tuned to the tonic Sa, the outer strings to the perfect fourth below and the octave below Sa. Vocalists have the freedom to choose a pitch of Sa that allows them to reach at least the fifth below and an octave and a half above the tonic. For male vocalist this is usually C or D, for female vocalists G or A. In instrumental music the pitch of Sa varies according to the size of the instrument, for instance C or C # for sitar. In Hindustani system the natural notes corresponding to the western major scale are called shuddh (lit. pure). Re, Ga, Dha and Ni can be flattened by a semitone and are then known as komal (lit. soft). Ma can be sharpened by a semitone and is then referred to as tivr (lit. sharp). Sa and Pa are immovable (achal) and hence their position can not be altered. Thus an octave consists of 12 tones (seven natural and 5 chromatic).
Mainly three octaves are used: low (mandr), middle (madhy) and high (tar).

Shruti
Although a svar in any specific rag is located at one of the twelve abstract theoretical pitch positions, the exact pitch of the notes has never been standardised in frequencies or ratios. It is  accepted that the actual position of the semitones excluding Sa and Pa can vary  slightly. The flat notes can be lowered by approximately 20 cents, and are then called ati komal (extra low). Similarly, tivr Ma can become tivrtar (sharper). These microtonal variations are often referred to as shruti (lit.that which is audible) in the sense of the smallest perceptible increment in pitch. Since the ancient time, an octave (or heptad-saptak) was assigned 22 shruti-s spread over 12 tones.
In the context of contemporary performance practice, as far as steady pitches (khada sur lit. standing note) are concerned, empirical research indicates that intonation is fairly standardised and that no significant deviations can be correlated to specific rag-s, as has often been maintained by protagonists of the shruti theory (Levy : 1982, corroborated by research Bel, Meer, Rao). The actual frequency ratios of the notes in comparison to Sa are consistent for a particular tuning of the tanpura and follow a system that could best be described as a just harmonic system.
This means that the simplest frequency ratios are used, except when two such tunings compete with each other, in which case some form of interpolation (or temperament) is used. Thus the Pa (702 cents) is a perfect fifth above the tonic, and Re (204 cents) a perfect fourth below the Pa. The Ga is a harmonic major third above the tonic (386 cents).  The Dha then, could either be tuned as a fifth above Re (making it 906 cents) or as a fourth above Ga (884 cents). Measurements show it to be in between both theoretical tunings at 895 cents.
The expected differentiation of intonation in different rag-s is not corroborated by empirical research. However, two salient factors which are responsible for consistent differentiation of intonation have come to light during the empirical studies on context-related intonation. The first, which was already indicated by Ratanjankar (1940) and corroborated by Levy, is that in ascending passages notes are intoned higher, while in descending passages they become lower. The second is the tuning of the fourth string of tanpura which can be either in Ma, Pa, or Ni of the lower octave. In the so called Ma-tuning (m S S S-lower), the Ga is higher, at almost 400 cents, while the Dha is lower, a harmonic major third above the Ma (884 cents). In the Ni tuning (N S S S-lower),with Ni at about 1105 cents) all notes tend to be higher.
As summarised by Powers, it is true that the numerous inflections of svar in musical contexts cannot be described fully in terms of a system of 12 fixed positions. But to say that particular shadings of pitch are essential in a particular kind of musical context is not to say that those shadings are best described in terms of some sort of microtonal scale (Powers [Grove’s Dictionary] 1980: 98). For a historical review of shruti from ancient period till to-date,  Rao & Meer 2010, may be referred  

That-s or Scales 
In the medieval period, the term that was exclusively associated with the fretted string instruments in which a particular fret-arrangement had to be made by moving some of them to obtain the desired scales. The instruments were accordingly known as chal-that (requiring shifting of frets) and achal-that (requiring no such change).
The concept of that is essentially synonymous with the concept of mel prevalent in the South Indian tradition. That (lit. type or group)  can be defined as an arrangement of notes having a potential to generate rag-s. 

That is a genus whereas a rag is a species arising out of it.

 Thus a that is a heptatonic scale using each of the seven svar-s. Venkatmakhi (1660 A.D.) showed how the semi-tonal scale of pitches produced by the Veena with fixed frets could be permuted to produce 72 seven-degree scale types with fixed tonic and fifth, and five variable degrees (ibid: 82).

It is generally assumed that the original Indian scale had a lowered third and seventh: S R g m P D n. From this parent scale six other scales were derived by shifting the tonic to each of the seven notes. These are :

S R g m P D n  Kafi that
n S r g m P d  Bhairavi that
D N S R G M P  Kalyan that
P D n S R G m  Khamaj that
m P d n S R g m  Asavari that
R G m P D N S  Bilabal that

In addition to the above scales, the following chromatic scales were derived.
D N S r G M P  Marva that
N S r G M P d  Purvi that
d N S r g M P  Todi that
S r G m P d N  Bhairav that

The above mentioned ten scales form the that system of V. N. Bhatkhande (1860-1936), which he used as a pragmatic model for classifying his collection of thousands of compositions in over two hundred Hindustani rag-s. 

Incidentally, Bhatkhande was inspired by the southern system of 72mel, propounded by Venkatmakhi (ibid: 84). As pointed by his adversaries like Omkarnath Thakur, this system is not without limitations, e.g. this classification does not satisfactorily cover some of the scale-types like Lalit, Patdip, Ahir bhairav and pentatonic rag-s like Malkauns, Bhupali etc. 

Further, the classification becomes ambiguous as it relies totally on the scale-type as a supreme classificatory tool (Thakur [Sangitajnali] 1938-1962). 

These short comings aside, Bhatkhande’s ten that system provided a sufficient framework for defining and classifying the most common tone material used in rag-s practiced in Hindustani tradition, and has since become standard.

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Melody

Rag
Rag is the central and predominant melodic concept in Indian music. Raison detre of a classical music performance is, projecting the entity of a rag in its fullest splendour, so as to offer to the listeners an aesthetic experience that is specific the rag. The etymology of the Sanskrit term rag(from the root ranj) refers in broader sense to “colour”, and more specifically to the emotion or mood produced by a particular combination or sequence of pitches (Ruckert & Widdess [Garland Encyclopedia] 1999: 64). The very first definition of rag was thus given by Matang (500-800 A.D.), “In the opinion of the wise, that particularity of notes and melodic movements, or that distinction of melodic sound by which one is delighted, is rag” (Widdess [The Ragas of Early Indian Music] 1995: 41).
The nucleus of rag, as defined by Matang and his followers can be found in jati and jati lakshan-s described by Bharat (200 B. C.- 200 A.D.). However, Powers presents somewhat different view partially rejecting this commonly accepted notion about the evolution of rag-s (Powers [Grove’s Dictionary] 1980: 78). Some scholars have suggested that the characteristic tunes of various rag-s have emerged from folk songs as well as from the local and provincial melodies (Gangoly [Ragas & Raginis] 1947: vii).

Rag as understood in the contemporary musical parlance eludes a simple and concise definition. Broadly it can be considered as a melodic mode or matrix that serves as a basic framework for composition and improvisation in Indian music. Technically, rag is a musical entity in which the choice of notes; their order and hierarchy, the manner of intonation, relative duration and their specific melodic approach, are clearly defined.
The order in which the notes can occur in a given rag is defined by ascent (aroh) and descent (avroh) while their hierarchy is given in terms of tonal centers as well as strong and weak notes (vadi-samvadi and alpatv – bahutv relationships). The other defining characteristics include the possible tonal range, the initial note and the resting note/notes etc. Although there may be rag-s with similar scales-similar melodic configuration, similar melodic configuration- different scales, similar scales-different melodic configuration and those exhibiting partial similarity; by virtue of the above mentioned musical characteristics  a given rag embodies a specific musical idea which can be uniquely identified with it.
As a result of influence of Vedic and Tantric philosophy, many extra musical references and associations such as specific deity, colour, gender, visual contemplation (dhyan), time/season for performance and aesthetic emotion (ras), came to be attached to rag. Such association with extra-generic references attempted to personify the melodic entity of rag, which otherwise remains as an abstract sonal body. Today the only association that is maintained, though somewhat loosely, is the time /season for performing a rag.
Over the centuries, many changes have occurred with respect to rag such as disappearance of certain rag-s, emergence of new ones, transformation of rag-s and different interpretations ofrag-s.
The contemporary rag formation is based on foundation of 12 notes, 7 pure or natural(shuddh) and 5 altered- flat and sharp (vikrit). Important rules concerning rag-formation  are enumerated by V. N. Bhatkhande:
1. No rag can be made of less than five notes.
2. A rag can never omit Sa, the first note of the scale. Also it can not omit both Ma and Pa (the fourth and fifth note of the scale).
3. A rag should not include two forms (flat and sharp) of the same note consecutively.
4. A rag should have a definite ascent and descent.
Although theoretically it is possible to arrive at an infinite number of rag-s, their number is limited because of the above mentioned rules that govern rag formation and also due to the aesthetic considerations. In the contemporary performance practice 150-200 rag-s seem to be in vogue. However, only 40-50 rag-s are commonly practiced and form the basic repertory of  almost every performing artist.

Ornamentation
The word gamak, used in a generic sense, implies ‘ornamentation’. but as argued by Powers, the implication that something merely decorative has been added to something basic is in part misleading (Powers [Grove’s Dictionary] 1990: 105). The musicological treatises from the medieval period onwards describe fifteen types of vocal and nineteen types of instrumental gamak-s, mainly in relation to string instruments (ibid).
However, most of these ornamentation are no longer extant. Although the contemporary Hindustani music often uses long drawn steady notes with a great sense of accuracy of intonation, the space between the notes and the manner in which the notes are linked, are also as important. Ornamentation assumes significance in connection with such intonations. In some cases the particular ornament becomes mandatory in order to define the flavour of a rag, whereas, many a times these embellishments have purely aesthetic function.
Following ornamentations are prevalent in the contemporary Hindustani music.

Kan (written in notation as superscript) is a single grace note before, after or within a main note. It is widely used as an ornament showing the way in which notes are approached in a particular rag. In fact, kan is so common that the attack of a note without a preceding grace is extremely rare.

Mind (commonly denoted as /or \) is a continuous gliding movement between two notes. It brings about a slow transition within the notes without touching upon the in-between notes.

Andol (or andolan denoted as ~) is a slow and repeated intonation of a given note with a kan of an adjacent (upper or lower) note. The contemporary musicians often use the term shruti in conjunction with andol in the context of rag-s such as Darbari, where the flat Ga has a characteristic andol. The pitch position often clearly dips below the flat (komal) position and is therefore called extra-flat (ati-komal).

Murki is a fast and complex ornament involving two or more notes. Except in rare cases it is a pure ornament; it does not characterise the rag. Rather the complexity and frequency of murki depends on genre and style. Amongst the gharana-s of khayal, Mewati, Kirana and Patiala show a tendency to use this ornament more generously in their expression. Also, in semi-classical genres such as thumri, dadra etc. the frequency and complexity of murki is much more as compared to khayal.

Gamak in Hindustani music refers to a heavy shake on a single note. In faster movements gamak refers to a note-treatment involving intonation of several notes, each with a touch of either lower or higher note, laying stress on the main note.
Sunth is yet another type of ornament which is a mind with a nasal pronunciation using the sound ‘u’.
While mind, andol, sunth and gamak are the principal ornaments in dhrupad; khayal additionally includes ornaments like kan and murki.

Alankar (lit. ‘that which makes sufficient’) is another term indicative of ornamentation. In music it has a specific meaning of a decorative motif that can be repeated sequentially up and down the scale (Powers & Widdess [Oxford Music Online] 57). Such motifs are often used in the tan-formation in khayal.

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Rhythm

Tal
In Indian music, the rhythmic organisation is as important as the melodic aspects. Fundamental to the discourse on metric concepts is tal, the root meaning of which has to do with beating with the hands, the basic and original means of keeping control of musical time cycles (Powers [Groves Dictionary] 1990: 118). In the contemporary music tal has twofold meaning; system of rhythm as a whole and a specific metric cycle (Kippen [Garland Encyclopedia] 1999: 110). A tal is a framework which organises and governs rhythm and controls the temporal aspect of performance, both vocal or instrumental music and dance.
Any tal can be primarily described as comprising of certain number of time units known as matra-s (measure /count /beats). The term matra also denotes the duration between two beats (ibid112). More importantly, a tal is further characterised by vibhag or khand  (sections into which  beats are grouped and stressed). Two tal-s may consist of equal number of matra-s, however they can be distinguished on the basis of vibhag-s. 

The complete cycle of the tal is called avartan or avarto; the root meaning being “rotation”, highlighting its cyclic characteristic. The common North Indian tal-s have 6,7,8,10,12,14 or 16 beats. Tintal having 16 (4-4-4-4) beats is the most common tal.

The first beat of the tal is called sam. The process of improvisation may or may not start from sam but it invariably ends on this beat which is often accentuated. Whereas, the beat which serves as a counterpoint to sam is called khali ( lit. empty). Generally, khali  is in the middle of the tal cycle (except in case of Rupak where it is the very first beat). When the tal is marked by hand claps (which is common during teaching and composing but not in performance), the beginning of every vibhag is marked by clap while the khali is shown by wave of hand.
The identifiable and reproducible sound syllables of tabla (or any instrument for that matter) are known as bol, and articulation of tal using such recognisable drum patterns is known as theka. In other words, the tal is marked by a configurative drum pattern (theka) played on the tabla, which keeps repeating in a cyclical manner.

Thus the pattern for Tintal is:

Matra       1      2      3      4      5      6      7      8      9     10    11    12    13    14     15      16
               sam (clap)             clap                           khali                       clap

Theka      dha  dhin  dhin  dha  dha  dhin  dhin   dha   dha   tin   tin    ta      ta    dhin  dhin  dha
 

Tal-s used in dhrupad are: Chautal (12 beats), Dhamar (14 beats), Sultal (10 beats), Jhaptal (10 beats) and Tevra (7 beats). Khayal mainly uses tal-s like Ektal (12 beats), Tintal (16 beats), Tilvada (16 beats), Jhumra (14 beats), Jhaptal (10 beats) and Rupak (7 beats). Tal-s like Dipchandi (14 beats), Rupak (7 beats), Dadra (6 beats) and Keherva  (8 beats) are preferred in semi-classical genres of thumri and allied forms.

Whilst in dhrupad & dhamar the rhythmic accompaniment is provided by pakhavaj, which is a double-headed barrel drum, the tabla drum pair is widely used in khayal, thumri, instrumental music and kathak dance.
Lay or laya

Lay is a fundamental term for rhythm in the Western sense of “timing” (ibid 111). In its broad sense lay means ‘time’ of music. The word also has another meaning, “tempo” or the speed at which a composition is performed. In Indian music, lay is specified in relative terms: vilambit(slow), madhy (medium) and drut (fast). Normally, as the performance progresses, the speed of rendition goes on increasing; within a given composition and /or when there is a transition from one composition to the other.
Tihai
Tihai (from ti or tin meaning three) is a rhythmic or melodic cadence in which a phrase is repeated three times. It is a specific kind of improvisation that is used to conclude a melodic or rhythmic passage. It may also stand alone as a self-contained improvisation. In either case, it contains a motive
played three times, usually creating a good deal of rhythmic tension that is resolved in a final articulation (ibid 200). Tihai generally ends immediately before the opening section (mukhda) of a composition or on the first beat of the tal cycle (sam).

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Performance

Performance set-up
In India, the temples were the main centers for learning and performing the traditional art-forms. Later, with a generous support from Muslim rulers; these arts, specially music and dance came to be associated with royal courts. Since the 20th century, music and dance has received patronage from public at large. Concert halls, outdoor performances, the radio, LP, CD and cassette recordings, have all contributed to a much wider diffusion of classical music. This has had far-reaching consequences on the life of music and musicians in India.
Hindustani music is essentially structured around soloist. The set-up of a typical concert is described as baithak (from baithna meaning “to sit”) or as mehfil, suggesting a small intimate gathering.

The ensemble includes one main artist, either vocalist or instrumentalist and the accompanists (their number varies depending on the type of concert- vocal / instrumental). For vocal music, there are either one or two tanpura players, a sarangi player (nowadays often replaced by harmonium) and a percussionist (either tabla or pakhavaj), whereas, an instrumentalist receives support from percussionist and  a tanpura player (nowadays many instrumentalists prefer to replace this with electronic tanpura). The soloist occupies central position on the stage and has the main responsibility of music-making. Tanpura players provide the tonic, which gives a constant reference tone. They occupy positions behind the main artist on either side and often, they may be disciples of the soloist. The percussionist and the sarangi (or harmonium) player sit on either sides of the soloist; usually, percussion on the right and the melody instrument on the left. Some vocalists prefer to play one of the tanpura-s or strum svara mandal, an open stringed zither for occasional melodic reinforcement. The sarangi (or harmonium) follows the vocalist and is only occasionally allowed to play solo phrases. The percussionist is expected to keep the tal (rhythmic) cycle going in specified tempo (lay). Occasionally, the soloist might let him improvise while he himself or the melody instrument keeps the time. In appropriate measure, such interludes can be aesthetically satisfying.

Sometimes there can be two soloists; both vocalists, both instrumentalists or one vocalist and instrumentalist each, who alternate with each other in a balanced manner. This can be an ad hoc duet (jugalbandi), or a family trend (e.g. as in Dagar family). In case of a solo percussion recital, the melody instrument assumes the role of time-keeping while the percussionist becomes the principal artist.

The ideal setting for a recital is a select and small gathering of appreciative listeners who sit like the artist on the floor. Besides providing acoustic intimacy, the close proximity helps to establish communication with the audience. Nevertheless, today, classical music concerts are also held for large audiences in modern auditoria furnished with chairs and modern amplification systems, perhaps compromising on the quality of the artist-audience interaction. There is a two-way communication between the artist and the audience involving verbal interjections and / or non-verbal expressions such as facial or hand gestures. A knowledgeable audience knows how and when to appreciate while the performer is expected to have the sensitivity to respond to the audience-reaction.

A performer of classical music (shastriya sangit, i.e. music based on scientifically and systematically formulated norms) presents one or more rag-s (depending on the duration of the concert). In the near past, the whole-night concerts and long presentations of a given rag, were very common. However, the contemporary concert duration has reduced to about two and half hours.

Elements of Rag Performance
Improvisation (upaj) with the elements of a rag within its structural framework plays the major role in a performance. Improvisation however does not mean assembling individual notes in random order; rather it entails combining notes to create aesthetically meaningful phrases and motifs leading up to an atmosphere appropriate to the rag (rag bhav). Depending on whether or not improvisation is bound or linked to a composition (bandish), there are two major categories of rag improvisation: anibaddh (unbound) and nibaddh (bound). In case of the latter, music proceeds with the rhythmic cycle (tal).
The main elements in a rag delineation are: alap (the free form introduction), bandish(composition), layakari (temporal variations) rhythmic improvisation) and tan (fast melodic runs). The details of these aspects, their order in performance, the types that are used and the emphasis placed on each of these elements depend upon the genre (dhrupad, khayal etc.) , style (ang), school (gharana) and the selected modality (vocal, instrumental music etc.).

Alap
Literally alap means discourse, exposé, and indeed it is in this section that clearly delineated phrases can reveal the individuality and flavour of the rag. It is rendered at the beginning in a very slow (vilambit) and / or medium (madhy) pace, with or without the drum accompaniment. The first section known as vilambit alap (because of the slow tempo) allows total freedom for the performer to portray minute details of the rag in a leisurely manner. The exposition starts around the tonic (Sa), moves slowly into the low octave and then gradually works its way up to the high octave; before returning to base note again. Thus the rag is delineated in the three main octaves. Every tenet of the rag concerning intonation, duration and combination of notes etc. is observed to the last detail during this part of the alap. Regardless of the school and style of the performer, it brings forth the essence of rag, and can undoubtedly be regarded as the finest medium for expressing all the salient features of a rag.
When alap is performed to the accompaniment of a drum, as in the genre of khayal, it is also known as badhat (from badhna meaning to grow) or vistar. Here the exposition is woven with thetal cycle and the mukhda (from mukh meaning face, the refrain) of the bandish (precomposed composition) is used to conclude each statement. On the other hand when it is performed without the drum accompaniment, as the case is in dhrupad, instrumental music and Agra gharana khayaltradition, a phrase akin to mukhda is introduced to complete each musical statement. This is also known as mohra. Although not bound by a rhythmic cycle, the exposition is not exactly a-rhythmical. The phrases flow in a definite pace, albeit without a measurable pulse.

In vocal music it is common to sing alap with the vowel sound ‘a’. However, when it is rendered using words (bol) of the composition (accompanied with the tal), it is known as bol alap. In dhrupad, abstract syllables such as ta, na, nom, tom etc. are used to enunciate alap phrases and the section is often referred as nom-tom alap.

The above movement; devoid of a clear pulse, gradually transforms into movements having a definite rhythmic pulse, albeit without the tal cycle. This is known as jod alap or jod (lit. joint). The phrases proceed in double the vilambit tempo, resulting in lilting movements.
The concluding section of alap that follows fast jod is jhala, which is even faster and more vigorous. It involves alternation between two notes enunciated using abstract syllables. A single utterance of a note (may be the tonic) with one syllable is followed by the recurrence of 1,2 or 3 syllables on another note; resulting in combinations of twos, threes and fours,  e.g. patterns like ta na, ta na na or ta na na na can be created with different notes like NS, DSS or PSSS etc. Such varied combinations give rise to rhythmic patterns (chhand) that ultimately build up to a super fast tempo. In some instrumental styles jhala also features as the concluding item of a concert.

Bandish
Bandish (chiz/gat) is a composition in which rag, tal and sahity (text, except in instrumental music), have been aesthetically combined. Bandish is the seed from which a rag performance evolves. It represents the central idea or the edifice upon which a rag performance is sculpted and realised. A good composition reveals the distinctive features of rag and helps portray its personality in an unambiguous manner. Although a bandish may be relatively short (ranging from 2-16 cycles), due to its inherent completeness it plays a vital role, both in portrayal of the rag and in the structure of the performance. Rag-s are known to musicians primarily through compositions.

As a structural element, the bandish is the kernel to which the musician returns after every section of improvisation. The textual content of compositions covers a wide range of themes, from religious and philosophical matters to love, nature and music itself. Compositions are in diverse languages and regional dialects: Hindi, Brajbhasha, Avadhi, Bhojpuri, Marwadi, Punjabi, Farsi, Sanskrit, Hindi and so, thus encompassing pan-Indian expressions and ethos.

A composer (vaggeykar, rachanakar, nayak) as creator of both lyrics and melodic or rhythmic content is a much revered figure in the Indian tradition. Mostly the composer is anonymous but there are works in which the composer’s pen-name (mudra) is mentioned.
A composition should have at least two parts, sthayi and antara. The sthayi portrays the rag’s main properties in the middle and low octave, and the antara shows how to approach the high octave. Some compositions, especially dhrupad, may have a third and fourth part (sanchari andabhog), which melodically resemble sthayi and antara, but give scope to include longer texts.

Although precomposed, good compositions hold enough potential for melodic improvisation and interpretation by the performer. It is no wonder therefore that the present-day performers find pride in drawing upon the traditional compositions to lend credibility to their art.

Layakari
Layakari (laya + kari meaning to work on tempo) is the introduction of temporal / rhythmic variations with reference to the assumed tempo. This may consists of playing the composition at various tempi such as ad (one and half times the original tempo), dogun (two times), tigun (three times), or using off beat (khala) melodic phrasing. In some vocal genres, spacing the words in different ways over the rhythmic cycle is a form of layakari known as bolbant (dividing the words).

Tan
A rapid melodic run is known tan. In ancient and medieval theory, the term tan designates a melodic phrase in general, but in contemporary practice it exclusively refers to fast and often long series of notes of equal/unequal duration, usually at a tempo that is two, four, eight or sixteen times higher than that of the accompanying tal cycle. The tan phrases are not composed randomly; there is a logic in its development, which aims at creating a meaningful melodic structure within the bounds of rag.

Two main varieties of tan-s as mentioned in theory are: shuddh (pure) and kut (complex / puzzling). The contemporary performance displays a great variety, both in melodic and rhythmic structure as well as in technique. The most common melodic varieties are sapat (the straight moving) tan and vakr (zigzag) tan. The notes may be grouped in varying numbers, thereby creating interesting rhythmic patterns (katav).  could be is underlined by a syllable/word (bol) of the composition (bol tan). Furthermore, different techniques of sound production may be applied to tan, of which the gamak (shaking) tan is a common example. Presentation of tan-s of great variety with clear enunciation of individual notes requires a sound training, skill and creativity. Nowadays a general craze for speed in tan and also excessive indulgence in tan-s is noticed; which has done much harm to the variety of tan-s with respect to form and technique.

For an in-depth analysis of role of each of the above elements in dhrupad and khayal performance, see (van der Meer [Hindustani music in the 20th century] 1980)

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Genres

Genres
Rag-s are known to musicians through traditional compositions in genres such as dhrupad, khayal, tarana, thumri etc. Of these, dhrupad, khayal and thumri denote both, the composition and the genre as a whole.

1. Dhrupad
Dhrupad is the oldest of today’s vocal music genres. It was the dominant tradition since at least the mid-16th century. All the Indo-Persian sources of that time point to the court of Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior (1486- 1511) as the place where dhrupad originated. Dhrupad also has been prevalent in the Vaishnava temple tradition (also known as Haveli or Pushtimargiya tradition).

Composition
The word dhrupad is derived from dhruv (fixed) and pad (song). It refers to a specific type of vocal composition that is mostly set to a rhythmic cycle of 12 beats called Chautal. Compositions may also be set to Sultal (10 beats), Jhaptal (10 beats, when the composition may be called Sadra) or Rupak tal (7 beats).

The lyrics is mostly in medieval languages of the Hindi family like Braj bhasha (the western literary dialect of Hindi spoken around the region of Mathura), Avadhi (the eastern dialect of Hindi spoken around the region of Avadhi) or mix of both these. Song texts cover a wide range of themes, from religious and philosophical matters to love, nature and music itself. The poetry follows a rather strict metrical structure and the words are important for their literary contents. Hence, a clear enunciation of the words and their syntax assume special significance.
Often the composer is anonymous, and even when songs are ascribed to a well-known composer-musicians such as Tansen or Swami Haridas, the authenticity of the song sometimes remains doubtful.

Structurally, dhrupad compositions are supposed to have four tuk-s (parts) of four lines each: sthayi, antara, sanchari, abhog. Composition in Dhamar tal (14 beats) could have only two stanzas of two or four lines each.

Performance
The essence of dhrupad is the elaborate rag exposition in the form of alap, followed by a composition.
A dhrupad performance begins with an extensive alap which slowly delineates the rag; while making use of minimum ornaments such as mind, gamak and sunth. Alap is sung without the rhythmic accompaniment and uses meaningless syllables such as ta, na, ri, nom etc. The alap has distinct movements, viz. vilambit alap (also known as nom-tom), jod and jhala. Throughout the alap, many features can be noticed which suggest a possible influence of instrumental music upon vocal music and vice versa.
After alap, entire composition is presented. The rhythmic accompaniment is provided by pakhavaj but the melodic support that was once provided by bin (a fretless stick-zither) has nowadays disappeared.
After the full composition is rendered, the song text is repeated in double, treble and quadruple tempi. Then in changing tempi, slow improvisations are presented repeating the words and regrouping the words to show novel interpretations (layakari). Convention does not permit usage of tan in dhrupad performance. Both, the singer and the pakhavaj player simultaneously indulge in improvisations and every time come together on the sam (first beat of the rhythmic cycle), at which point the singer repeats the first line of the composition (or a small part thereof). As the performance progresses, rhythmic patterns become increasingly complex, culminating in a spectacular interplay between the singer and the percussionist.
Depending upon the use of embellishments and the tempi, broadly four stylistic peculiarities (bani-s) have been identified: Gauhar, Dagar, Nauhar and Khandar. However, nowadays this distinction is fading away.

2. Khayal /Khyal
Khayal means idea or imagination in Arabic, and symbolizes greater freedom for elaboration, perhaps, in contrast to the rigour associated with dhrupad, which was a dominant genre at the time khayal took its roots. Supposedly evolved by Niyamat  Khan (also known as Sadarang) of the court of Mohamad Shah (Delhi, 1719- 1748), at present it is the most prevalent genre of  Hindustani vocal music. Sadarang’s compositions are the oldest in the repertory and even today, many of Sadarang’s compositions are popular amongst musicians.

Interestingly, the genre of khayal has had tremendous influence on the stylistic development of North Indian instrumental music, especially the string instruments like sitar, sarod, sarangi, santoor and even flute.

Composition
Structurally, khayal has two parts, sthayi and antara. Sthayi covers the first half of the melodic range, even going down in the lower octave, while the antara mainly explores the upper part of the gamut. There are exceptions but largely such a structure is supposed to cover the raga-frame completely. The total number of lines may vary from four to six. The most important part of khayal is mukhda (lit. face), to which vocalist must return after a complete cycle of improvisation. The words used in khayal are known as bol. A khayal (composition) may be set to any of the common tal-s, the popular being Ektal (12 beats), Jhumra (14 beats), Jhaptal (10 beats) and Tintal (16 beats).

Most khayal-s are composed in local languages such as Braj bhasha, Avadhi, Punjabi and Marwadi. Since the words are relatively less significant, the text of khayal is rather short and has a loose poetic metre. As compared to dhrupad, the compositions of khayal use rather secular themes; often coloured with romantic elements. The thematic content could range from description of nature to the divine love songs of Krishna.

Performance
Khayal, as a genre, is characterized by the presentation of a structured composition as  described above, along with melodic elaborations, the details of which will depend on several factors such as the school (gharana) in which the artiste has trained, nature of the rag, capability of the artiste, time available for exploration etc.
Rag exploration in khayal tradition essentially follows the following basic principles:

A. The melodic development is begins with the tonic Sa and expands progressively encompassing all the tonal material, finally coming back to Sa.
B. The recital commences with the lowest speed and concludes at the highest.

Usually, a full-length systematic unfoldment (badhat, vistar) generally follows the following schema.

a. A very brief section with few melodic phrases (auchar) to introduce the rag.

Presentation of the slow composition (either in parts or full) to establish the range and mood of the rag. The relative tempo of rendition differs in different gharana-s. A single beat can take up to six seconds. Such extremely slow tempo in which every single beat is sub-divided into four or eight sub-beats, is a relatively recent development. At the beginning of the 20th century the slowest tempo was approximately one beat to two seconds. In older schools such as Gwalior, Jaipur, Agra;  the tempo of the slow composition is not too low, about two seconds per beat.
b. Alap is the first and foremost stage in the rag unfoldment schema which is presented on the frame of the composition. It is a free-flow of melodic phrases, built around various melodic centers of the rag. There is no discernible metre as such in the melodic elaborations of alap, but it is governed by the tempo and duration (number of beats) of the tala cycle, in which the composition is set. After completion of each melodic idea, musician must return to the mukhda of the composition. Usually the vowel sound ‘aa’ (akar) is used to articulate alap.
c. Bol alap is the next phase, which combines alap and enunciation of words (bol) of the composition. Here the melodic designs are woven with meaningful words, resulting in motifs of special tonal quality. Whilst the akar in alap facilitates a clear expression of musical notes, bol alap creates a distinct aural effect.
d. Layakari is the section where rhythmic patterns are introduced in to otherwise melody-dominated rendition. With accent on bols, all the three facets of music, viz. svara (note), tala (rhythm) and sahitya (lyrics) converge to offer a multi-layered expression.
e. Bol tan is akin to bol alap except that the tempo is much faster in bol tan, which gradually culminates in to climatic phase of tan-s.
f. Tan refers to melodic runs in fast tempo. The tonal pattern can range across three octaves. There is a possibility for creating variety of tan-s on the basis of its content as well as the manner of rendition. Musical effect is heightened due to the accent on speed.

Khayal presented in slow tempo generally includes all the above features and is known as ‘bada khayal’ (lit. big khayal). This is mostly followed by another shorter composition rendered in a faster tempo, known as ‘chhota khayal’ (lit. small khayal). This composition may not be set in the same tal as the first piece but temporally it takes off from where the earlier slow composition has left off.
It can be set to any tal that affords rendition in a faster tempo. Because of the increased tempo, there is more scope for bol tan-s and tan-s.

The tempo at which the bada and chhota khayal compositions are to be presented, is quite arbitrary, and not very strictly specified. The initial tempo as well as the extent to which it can be increased within a given composition, is a subjective issue depending upon the gharana, and  the capability of the artiste. Within a given raga performance, while acceleration of speed is definitely desirable, its retardation is viewed as a fault.
This model of a slow khayal that is mainly devoted to alap, followed by a fast composition in which the feature of tan assumes significance, is the most common but many other possibilities also exist. Thus, in the Jaipur school, artists may present only a medium tempo composition. In Agra school, a dhrupad-like alap may be sung first, followed by a medium or fast khayal. In Shyam Chaurasi school of Pakistan, a slow, medium and fast khayal compositions are sung in sequence. Moreover, the order of alap-layakari-tan is not quite rigid. Depending upon the mood of the rag and the style of the performer, some variations are possible in this pattern

3. Tarana
A special type of composition that is often included in the repertoire of khayal singers is tarana, which is a Persian word for any song. Tradition credits Amir Khusrau (1253-1325) for having combined Farsi rubai (a poetic form of aphoristic couplets) with the prevailing forms employing meaningless sound-clusters to shape tarana (Ranade [Keywords and Concepts] 1990: 30).

Tarana is essentially a composition made of sound syllables of string instruments and rhythm, which are linguistically often meaningless. The common sound clusters used in a tarana are: dir dir, tan, nan, yalali, dani, tom, derena and so on. The special characteristic feature of tarana is the section including highly rhythmic improvisations using such syllables. In a very fast speed, it sounds much like the jhala section of dhrupad or similar form played on string instruments such as sitar and sarod. Sometimes tarana also includes a line or two of Persian text. The composition is generally presented in a medium or fast tempo, and structurally has two parts, sthayi and antara. Tarana compositions can be in any rag and in any tal, although Tintal and Ektal seem to be commonly used tal-s for tarana.

The elaboration of tarana composition shows two distinct styles. One followed by the Kirana tradition and the other by the Gwalior and Rampur- Sahaswan tradition. In the Kirana style, the tarana composition is treated almost like a chhota khayal. Whereas in the other style, it is treated as a climactic piece of the raga presentation. Therefore, all the elements such as fast tempo, super-fast tan-s, renditions of bol-s in a tongue-twisting manner etc. are aimed at creating a heightening effect of crescendo. An effective rendering of tarana demands a special skill for verbalization through proper training and practice.

4. Thumri
Thumri (lit. thumkana – to walk with the dancing gait) is a semi-classical form of Hindustani music. Although Wajid Ali Shah of Lucknow (1822-1997) is credited for having evolved and popularised it, historical evidence points to its existence since 400 A.D. (Ranade [Keywords and Concepts] 1990: 32).

Thumri is closely associated with Kathak dance and evocative love poetry. Thematic content of thumri is, expression of love in myriad manifestations ranging from devotion, romance, separation, longing, jealousy and union, to erotic mood.
Traditionally, thumri-s are set in special rag-s like Pilu, Kafi, Bhairavi, Khamaj, Tilang etc.  which are amenable to assimilate melodic digressions in the form of extraneous notes/ phrases. Slow compositions of thumri are set to tal-s such as Dipchandi (14 beats), Rupak (7 beats), Addha (16 beats), Punjabi (16 beats) etc; while the fast thumri-s can be in Dadra (6 beats) or Keherva (8 beats). Commonly, a fast thumri is referred to as dadra, irrespective of tal in which it is set. Thumri could also be set to other tal-s, especially Tintal (16 beats).
Although the composition itself (sthayi and antara) may be very brief, the words play a prominent role. The subtle shades of mood are evoked by means of improvisation of words in loose melodic and rhythmic movements which are known as bol banao and bol bant respectively. A type of parlando (pukar, lit. call) is often used with great emotive effect. Thumri uses much ornamentation, both in the form of vocal inflections that resemble emotional speech and in the form of complex murki-s, which sets it apart from other genres.
Thumri-s are of different types depending upon the basic orientation displayed in favour of dance, abhinaya (interpretation and depiction though gestures and facial expressions) and music. The slow thumri-s make use of bol banao while another type of thumri, called bandish ki thumri, is set to faster tempo and uses the feature of bol bant. Such thumri has a greater word density as compared to the slow thumri. Each beat carries one syllable of the text, creating rhythmic reinforcement and giving impression of a tempo, faster than what it is. In the 19^th century, many such compositions were adopted as Razakhani gat-s by the sitar and sarod players.
The concluding section of slow thumri offers scope for the tabla player to create rhythmic patterns in double tempo. This sprightly section called laggi is a feature unique to this genre.

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Aesthetics

Influenced by the Vedic and Tantric traditions, there has been a practice of attaching extra-musical associations to various musical entities. Since ancient times music treatises refer to associations such as a specific deity, colour, gender, visual contemplation (dhyan), time of the day, season and aesthetic sentiment (ras). It has been suggested that such extramusical associations were linked to music so as to fill the void that was caused when music came to be an independent art separated from the context of drama (Sharma [Sangeet natak] 1970:61).
Of all such associations, today we still find in practice at least two: ras and time /season.

Ras 
In India, the perception of arts and literature seems to mainly rely on the concept of ras. which has been, from a very early times, the most important philosophy underlining the formal theory of aesthetics. No wonder therefore that use of the term ‘ras’ is widespread and integral to the Indian performing arts vocabulary. The term is derived from the root ‘ras’, meaning ‘to taste’, and has different connotations at three levels – physical, psychological and metaphysical. In the physical sense it is used to denote the juice or the essence, In the psychological sense it signifies the flavour or the taste, whereas on the metaphysical level it describes the experience one has when subjected to an artistic creation. Most significantly, according to Taittiriya Upanishad, ras denotes the ‘ultimate reality’, which forms basis for the supra-mundane experience of anand or the highest spiritual bliss (Taittiriya Upanishad II.7).

Explaining this aspect further, Prem Lata Sharma observes that in Indian tradition the central point of aesthetics is ras rather than beauty; ras being the direct source or essence of anand, is the ultimate goal of all artistic creations (Sharma [Sangeet natak] 1970:58). As noted by several scholars, the metaphysical aspect of the concept cannot be positively defined because it is supposed to be intuitively felt rather than sensibly experienced.

Bharat (200BC-200AD), the propounder of ras theory, classified the experience in to eight categories (Natyashastra, VI),suggesting various colourings of one experience. Thus the word rasmay be employed relatively in plural with respect to various conditions which constitute the burden of a given work. These are shringar (amorous), hasy ( humourous), karun (pathetic),raudr (furious), vir (valorous), bhayanak (horrific), bibhats (repugnant) and adbhut (wondrous). Later, Abhinavgupt, one of Bharat’s major critics, added the ninth ras as shant (peaceful).

It is to be noted that the concept of ras originated and developed in the context of dramaturgy (naty), which incidentally also incorporated both dance and music. Bharat’s exhaustive deliberations on ras suggest that all elements of naty, like music, dance, gestures, costumes, make-up etc. should be directed towards bringing out the desired aesthetic sentiment or the ras. Bharat has devoted nearly eight chapters (28 to 34) in his magnum opus Natyashastra to discuss association of various musical elements such as specific musical notes (svar), modal patterns (jati) and songs (dhruva) with a particular ras.

Rag and Ras
From the nucleus of jati that emerged from gram (the parent scale) in Bharat’s time, a revolutionary musical concept of rag was introduced by Matang (500-800AD). As defined in his landmark treatise Brihaddeshi, the rag is:
“That which colours the mind of the good through a specific svar (interval) and varn(melodic movement) or through a type of dhvani (sound), is known by the wise as rag (Matang [Brihaddeshi] 1994: 77).

In other words, a rag reveals a particular musical idea and through a number of tonal characteristics a highly individual atmosphere is created. Thus, the very definition of rag embodies in its purview the element of “delight” or “pleasure”.

Bharat’s postulations as mentioned above correlating various musical entities with particular ras,subsequently culminated in rag-ras relation, in which a particular rag is associated with one of the nine aesthetic sentiments (ras). Such associations survive even today in the music literature despite continuously changing socio-cultural milieu and aesthetic norms through the past two millennia. Nonetheless, musicologists like Prem Lata Sharma ([Sangeet natak] 1970: 63); ([Report of twelfth congress] 1981:528), Thakur Jaidev Singh ([Aspects of Indian music] 1957: 61) and Achary Brihaspati ([Bharat ka sangit siddhant] 1959) have pointed out serious limitations in applying Bharat’s dictum to rag-music as performed today.

An empirical study on the subject of rag and ras correlates the tonal configuration of a rag with its unique identity, and consequently validates the idea that a rag has a characteristic atmosphere of its own (Rao [Acoustical perspective on rag-ras theory] 2000). However, no specificity can be attached to this experience in terms of a specific ras in the conventional sense.

Time theory
The earliest reference to rag-time/season association dates back to 700-900 AD in Sangit Makarand of Narad (1978:15). Incidentally, the author of this treatise attempts rag-classification on the basis of the ras evoked by the melody. Subsequently such associations are also discussed in treatises like Bharatbhashya (also referred as Saraswati hridayalankar) ascribed to Nanyabhupal (alias Nanyadev, 1097-1133 AD), Sangit Ratnakar of Sharangdev (1247AD) and later works, albeit often without consistency.

In the modern times the relationship of rag with diurnal as well as seasonal time-cycle remains as one of the defining characteristics of rag. In Hindustani music especially, each rag is attributed to one of the eight watches (prahar) or divisions of the day and night, and/or to one of the six seasons (ritu). According to Powers, this association might have been derived from temple music, where rag-s are sung to accompany the cycle of daily rituals and seasonal festivals (Powers & Widdess [Oxford Music Online] 46). V. N. Bhatkhande (1860-1936), one of the most influential figures of 20th century, highlighted the importance of the fourth note (Madhyam). According to him, rag-s with emphasis on the lower tetrachord (purvang) are performed between noon and midnight whereas those with a dominant upper tetrachord (uttarang) are performed between midnight and noon (Bhatkhande [KPM] various vols.)
Starting the day at 4 pm, he refers to the period around sunrise and sunset as sandhiprakash(twilight), during which rag-s with flat Re and Dha are to be performed. After the sunrise (between 7-10) rag-s with shuddh Re, Ga and Dha are performed and thereafter up to the sunset rag-s with flat Ga and Ni are advocated. From 4 pm onwards the same cycle repeats but including rag-s with /dominance of sharp Ma.
Although the above theory of Bhatkhande has some limitations, by and large it can explain the contemporary practice.
For more on time theory, refer to N. A. Jairazbhoy [The rag-s of north Indian music] 1995: 64)

Due to the constraints of modern times, music recitals are mainly held in the evening, extending only up to the early part of the night. As a result, many rag-s appropriate to the morning, afternoon and late night have fallen out of use. Of course, the All India Radio (AIR), which is the National Radio network with the widest reach, continues to have broadcasts during morning, afternoon and night hours. Despite such efforts, generally there is a sharp decline in the number of rag-s that are performed as well as taught and learnt.